The American Inferiority Complex
Steven B. Zwickel
December, 2023
Why did Colonial Americans feel inferior to Europeans? Do Americans still feel this way? There is no single answer to these questions, but several factors contributed to the American mindset.
① We are a Nation of Mutts1
Unlike European countries, the United States is a diverse country, racially, and ethnically.
In the 17th century, the principal component of the population in the colonies was from England and the second largest group was of African heritage, almost entirely slaves.
During the 18th century, large numbers of German and Scots-Irish immigrants arrived.2 Many of the early Irish immigrants were of Scottish or English descent and came from the northern Ireland province of Ulster. Pushed out of Ireland by religious conflicts, lack of political autonomy, and dire economic conditions, these immigrants, who were often called "Scots-Irish," were pulled to America by the promise of land ownership and greater religious freedom. Many of the Scots-Irish immigrants were educated, skilled workers. Even those who financed their emigration by becoming indentured servants were well equipped to lead successful, independent lives when their period of servitude ended.
Other important contributions to the colonial ethnic mix were made by the Netherlands, Scotland, and France.
New England was almost entirely English and the English were the most numerous of the settlers of European origin in the southern colonies. In the middle colonies the population was mixed, but even Pennsylvania had more English than German settlers.
Except in Dutch and German enclaves, English language was used everywhere, and English culture prevailed. The “melting pot”3 began to “boil” in the colonial period, so effectively that Gov. William Livingston, who was ¾ Dutch and ¼ Scottish, described himself as an Anglo-Saxon.
As the other elements mingled with the English, they became increasingly like them; however, all tended to become different from the inhabitants of “the old country.” By 1763, the word “American” was commonly used on both sides of the Atlantic to designate the people of the 13 colonies.4
Six races are officially recognized by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes:
- Alaska Native and American Indian,
- Asian,
- Black or African American,
- Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander,
- White, and
- People of two or more races.
To Europeans, Americans appear to be mutts. Up until very recently, many Americans also saw themselves as somehow inferior to the “pure-bred” Europeans. In fact, it has only been in the past five decades that Americans have started to feel proud about their mixed heritage, often adding a hyphen to show where their ancestors came from. Thus we have Italian-Americans, Greek-Americans, etc.
A 2022 research study concluded that “…mixed heritage individuals who were motivated to assert their ancestry claims did so for two main reasons: First, by claiming a specific ancestry (or ancestries), participants wished to assert a more individualistic sense of self than was typically allowed, given their racial treatment based upon their racial appearance; this could be especially meaningful if those individuals felt a mismatch between their racial assignment by others and their sense of self. Second, a claim to a specific ancestry was a way for individuals to forge connections with family, relatives, or an ancestry group that had not existed before. Overall, while most of our mixed heritage participants reported details of their European ancestries, it was their Black, American Indian, or Asian ancestries that were deemed to be most salient and/or meaningful to who they were.”5
② Bottom of the Barrel
While many of those who emigrated to America came for religious freedom and economic opportunity, ⅓ to ½ of the Europeans in Colonial Era America came as indentured servants, apprentices, or convicts.6 Thus, many immigrants were from the lower classes at a time when Europeans still had very strict boundaries between social classes.
Indentured Servants signed contracts to work for a master in the colonies for a specified number of years or until the servant reached a certain age. Other than the cost of traveling to America, indentured servants were not paid, but were guaranteed food, shelter, clothing and shoes as long as they worked.
Approximately 300,000 European workers immigrated to the American colonies in the 1600s as indentured servants, and indentured servitude continued throughout much of the 1700s.
Indentured servitude in the U.S. began in the early 1600s in Virginia, not long after the settlement of Jamestown. Many early American settlers sought cheap labor to help manage their large estates and farms, and commonly agreed to fund the passage of European immigrants to Virginia in exchange for their labor.
Some people indentured themselves in order to gain passage to America or to escape debt and poverty. Others, including convicts, were sold into indenture upon arrival. Indentures were used for apprenticeship agreements as well as for service agreements.
Indentured servants could be sold, loaned, or inherited, at least during the duration of their contract terms. Today, indentured servitude is illegal in the United States and most other countries.8
For many Americans, having an ancestor who was a servant—a class just above laborer—was an embarrassment.
Apprentices made a contract to work for a skilled person—a master—for a particular period of time (and often for no or low payment), in order to learn that person's skills or to learn a trade from him. The master would feed, clothe and instruct the apprentice in the trade, and the apprentice would provide labor and watch out for his master's interests. At the end of his apprenticeship, the young person received clothes, tools, and became a journeyman who could work for himself.
As part of the contract, an apprentice agreed to keep trade secrets, obtain his master’s permission before leaving the premises, and abstain from vices such as frequenting taverns and the theater. The contract also listed the obligations of the master craftsman to his apprentice. Masters provided basic education (reading, writing, and arithmetic), training in the craft, room and board, and sometimes a set of tools or clothes on completion of the apprenticeship.
Having an apprentice among one’s ancestors was not quite as embarrassing as having a servant.
Those who were convicted of felonies sometimes escaped a sentence of death when they were sentenced to transportation to the Americas. This solved two problems for the government: it provided a much-needed workforce for the colonies, and it got criminals out of the prisons and off the streets. England transported an estimated 50,000 to 120,000 convicts and political prisoners, as well as prisoners of war from Scotland and Ireland, to its overseas colonies in the Americas from the 1610s until the American Revolution began in 1776, when transportation to America was temporarily suspended.9
England was not the only government that transported criminals to the Americas. Sweden sent political prisoners to New Sweden, now called Delaware; the Dutch sent vagrants and criminals to New York; and the French also transported criminals to New France. England sent vanquished political foes from Scotland and Ireland. The mayors of London and Liverpool regularly gathered up urchins from the streets of their cities to be sent to America and sold into indentured servitude.
Convicts who had been sold into indentured servitude, and who were making good in their new lives, were sometimes politely referred to as "servants" to avoid stigma.10
So many Americans have ancestors who were indentured servants, apprentices, or convicts—all members of the lowest classes in Europe—that it is not surprising that, for many, many years, Americans were deeply ashamed of their family origins.
③ If it’s European, It’s Better
For centuries Americans have been convinced that European culture and society are superior to theirs. Thus, the Europeans had enormous influence in many important areas. Examples include: In science, the most important research papers were written in German, in the fashion world, the language and sensibility came from France, and in the field of music, everything from notation to opera libretti were written in Italian.
German
- German was the primary language for scientific communication for most of the 19th and early 20th centuries. This predominance stemmed from a confluence of factors. German universities held a high reputation for academic excellence, attracting renowned scholars and fostering groundbreaking research.
German scientists made substantial contributions to various fields, including mathematics, physics, chemistry, and medicine. As a result, German became the lingua franca of scientific discourse, with scholars from other nations often translating their work into German to reach a wider audience.11
French
- French has long been considered the language of fashion. France played a pivotal role in shaping the fashion industry, and during the reign of King Louis XIV, France became the epicenter of fashion, with its royal court setting trends for the rest of Europe. French designers and couturiers were highly sought after, and their creations were admired for their elegance, sophistication, and craftsmanship. French is often associated with luxury, refinement, and good taste.
Even today, the use of French terminology in the fashion industry further reinforces this connection. Many fashion terms, such as haute couture, prêt-à-porter, lingerie, atelier, and défilé de mode, have French origins. These terms are widely used in the fashion industry, contributing to the language's dominance in the field. Paris hosts major fashion events like Paris Fashion Week, which attracts designers, buyers, and media from around the globe.
English has become more prevalent in the fashion industry due to globalization, but French remains influential.12
Italian
- Italian became the dominant language of music in Europe during the Renaissance, which flourished first in Italy, and it continues to be so today. Wealthy Italian patrons supported musicians, which attracted talented composers and performers from across Europe to Italy, leading to the development of opera and other musical forms.
Musical notation began in Italy when an Italian monk created the system of a staff and clefs to represent pitches, still used today and that makes it easier for musicians to communicate and share their work.
Italian language, a direct descendant of Latin, was widely spoken in Europe during the Renaissance, and was considered a language of refinement and culture. Italian is rich in expressive vocabulary and well-suited to describing the nuances of musical expression. Terms like “piano" (soft), “forte" (loud), “adagio” (slow), and “allegro” (fast) are all Italian words. Mozart, an Austrian, had his opera libretti written in Italian. Other operas by Puccini, Verdi, Monteverdi and others were all written to be sung in Italian.
Americans, given a choice, prefer classical music from Europe over works composed by an American.13
- It’s British, so it’s even Better!
So many colonial Americans were of English ancestry that it is not surprising that English language, culture, and social structure became the norm. In fact, England, and everything English was idealized by many of the colonists. Many colonial Americans were of British descent and shared a common language, religion, and cultural traditions with the British. They admired British society and aspired to achieve the same level of wealth, status, and refinement.
The colonial period corresponded to the rise of a new social class—families that got rich from trade and manufacturing. These newly wealthy Englishmen spent their money on lavish symbols to display their affluence such as huge country homes filled with art, antiques, and curiosities surrounded by enormous lawns and decorative gardens. They wore the latest high-fashion clothing, kept up on the most recent English slang and read the newest best-selling books. They sent their sons to the best schools—like Eton and Harrow—and then to the best universities—such as Cambridge and Oxford. Their oldest sons, who inherited all their wealth, became gentlemen who went fox hunting and married into the aristocracy.
Younger sons, who inherited nothing could buy an officer’s commission and join the English Army, where they wore a gorgeous uniform (paid for by themselves) and rode fine chargers (also paid for by themselves), and ate in the elegant Officers’ Mess (food and drink they paid for themselves).
Colonists were obsessed with keeping up with the English and eagerly awaited the latest news from London14. This powerful desire for news and an increase in literacy led to the creation of printing shops throughout the colonies15. Americans were so enthralled with the upper-class English accent that it became standard in the middle colonies. When moving pictures began using sound, the studios considered the English accent the ideal; many Americans continue to be impressed by British upper-class “plummy” pronunciation.
Colonial men, like George Washington, wanted to dress like English gentlemen and copied English fashions. Washington also modeled his plantation at Mount Vernon after English estates. For most of his life, Washington longed to be an “English Gentleman”. His older brothers were sent to school in England, but George’s father died and there was no money for George to go. He joined the army hoping that the uniform would make the English officers accept him. They continued to treat him like an inferior “colonial”. Washington seethed, but eventually he got his revenge.
When the English began drinking tea16, the Americans followed suit and were soon hooked on it. High taxes on tea meant that social tea drinking could only be afforded by the wealthier classes and a cup of tea became an activity associated with luxury.17
Distance and time made a difference as colonists found themselves having to be more self-reliant and creative to solve their unique problems. Over time, the colonies became less English and more American—distinct in values, attitudes, and ideas from the mother country. And they stopped drinking tea and switched to coffee.
- Americans think Europeans look down on Americans
Europeans and Americans have different cultures and values. Europeans tend to place a higher emphasis on social welfare, healthcare, and education, while Americans often prioritize individual freedom and entrepreneurship. These cultural differences can lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations.
Americans are embarrassed by the way Europeans perceive us. We accept their stereotypes as examples of how “uncivilized” we are:
Americans…
- …eat everything with ketchup
- …tear down relatively new buildings instead of respecting them
- …are obsessed with material wealth
- …don’t really know how to appreciate fine arts
- …are always in a rush
- …have no sense of history
- …are loud, talkative, and even arrogant.18
④ Perceptions Matter
Historically, Americans, if they were mentioned at all, were portrayed in European books and plays as unsophisticated country bumpkins. That contributed to the sense of inferiority. Nowadays, portrayals of Americans in the media seem to stress violence and disfunction, which play into the stereotypes of American inferiority.
At present, we hear about American exceptionalism19—the belief that the United States is either distinctive, unique, or exemplary compared to other nations. The phrase has its supporters and opponents. To some it reinforces America as a bastion of democracy, a nation of energetic, intelligent, compassionate people who try to do what is right. To others it smacks of chauvinism and blind loyalty to a country that has made mistakes.
The lesson from all of this is that how we see ourselves—how we value ourselves and how we feel about our culture—is important.
